Ancient Egypt

When you think of Egypt，it is likely that the first things that come to your mind are the pyramids and the huge stone figure of the Sphinx. They will stand after nearly 5000 years. Pyramids were built as tombs for the pharaohs. During the period of the Old Kingdom，Egyptians believed that only the pharaoh，who was considered a god，was sure to have a life after death. Therefore，it was important that the pharaoh’s burial place reflect his splendid position. It was important also that his remains and the objects provided for his well-being in the next world be protected and preserved.

There are about 80 pyramids still standing. Most of them are in groups along the west bank of the Nile. The building of these pyramids obviously required skillful engineering. Egyptian architects and engineers were among the best in the ancient world. They built ramps—sloping walkways along which enormous stones were pushed or pulled to raise them above the ground. Levers were also used for moving heavy objects.

Like their architecture，other arts of the Egyptians were of high quality. In addition to largescale works，sculptors also made small，lifelike statues of kings and sacred animals from copper，bronze，stone，or wood.

Egyptians decorated many of their buildings with paintings showing everyday life. Scenes might include artisans at work，farmers harvesting grain，and people enjoying banquets. Egyptians developed a distinctive way of drawing the human figure. The head was shown in profile，the shoulders facing forward，and the feet in profile. In spite of a certain stiffness，the paintings are colorful examples of the Egyptian enjoyment of life.

The Pyramids

Man fears Time，yet Time fears the Pyramids—Arab proverb.

It is the one and only Wonder which does not require a description by historians and poets. It is the one and only Wonder that does not need speculations concerning its appearance，size，and shape. It is the oldest，yet it is the only surviving of the Seven Ancient Wonders. It is the Great Pyramid of Giza.

Location：At the city of Giza，a necropolis of ancient Memphis，and today part of Great Cairo，Egypt.

History：Contrary to the common belief，only the Great Pyramid of Khufu(Cheops)，not all three Great Pyramids，is on top of the list of Wonders. The monument was built by the Egyptian pharaoh Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty around the year 2560B.C. to serve as a tomb when he dies.

This gigantic structure is more than half a mile(800 meters) around at the base and is 450 feet(137 meters) high. It consists of over two million blocks of stone，each of which weighs 2.5 tons. The great pyramid is believed to have been built over a 20 year period.

Throughout their history，the pyramids of Giza have stimulated human imagination. When Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1798，his pride was expressed through his famous quote：“Soldiers！From the top of these Pyramids，40 centuries are looking at us.”

Book of the Dead

By the time of the New Kingdom，the Egyptians had come to believe that only a person free from sin could enjoy an afterlife. The dead were thought to undergo a “last judgment”consisting of two tests presided over by Osiris(奥西里斯) and supervised by Anubis(阿努比斯)，the overseer of funerals and cemeteries，represented as a man with a jackal’s head.The deceased were first questioned by a delegation of deities about their behavior in life. Then their hearts，which the Egyptians believed to be the seat of the soul，were weighed on a scale against a feather，the symbol of goddess of truth.

Family members would commission papyrus scrolls containing magical texts or spells to help the dead survive the tests，and they had the embalmers place the scrolls among the wrappings of their loved ones’ mummified bodies.

Osiris，the god of the underworld，appears on the right，enthroned in a richly ornamented pavilion，or chapel. Here the souls of the deceased were thought to be subjected to a “last judgment”to determine whether they were worthy of eternal life. Osiris was traditionally depicted as a mummified man wrapped in a white linen shroud. His other trappings are those of an Egyptian king. He wears the double crown，incorporating those of both Upper and Lower Egypt，a false beard，and a wide beaded collar，and he brandishes the symbolic crook and flail in front of his chest. The figure in the center combining a man’s body with the head of an ibis，is the god Thoth. He here functions as a sort of court stenographer—appropriately，for he was revered as the inventor of hieroglyphic writing.

The Pharos of Alexandria

Of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World，only one had a practical use in addition to its architectural elegance：The Lighthouse of Alexandria. For sailors，it ensured a safe return to the Great Harbor. For architects，it meant even more：it was the tallest building on Earth. And for scientists，it was the mysterious mirror that fascinated them most. The mirror which reflection could be seen more than 50 km off-shore.

Location：On the ancient island of Pharos，now a promontory within the city of Alexandria in Egypt.

History：Shortly after the death of Alexander the Great，his commander Ptolemy Soter assumed power in Egypt. He had witnessed the founding of Alexandria，and established his capital there. Off of the city’s coast lies a small island：Pharos. The island was connected to the mainland by means of a dike which gave the city a double harbor. And because of dangerous sailing conditions and flat coastline in the region，the construction of a lighthouse was necessary.

The project was conceived and initiated by Ptolemy Soter around 290 B.C.，but was completed after his death，during the reign of his son Ptolemy Philadelphia(托勒米•费拉德菲亚). Sostratus(索斯特拉塔斯，亚历山大灯塔的设计者)，was the architect，but detailed calculations for the structure and its accessories were carried out at the Alexandria Library. The monument was dedicated to the Savior Gods：Ptolemy Soter and his wife Berenice(伯瑞尼丝，托勒密•索特之妻). For centuries，the Lighthouse of Alexandria(occasionally referred to as the Pharos Lighthouse)was used to mark the harbor，using fire at night and reflecting sun rays during the day.

When the Arabs conquered Egypt，they admired Alexandria and its wealth. Lighthouse continues to be mentioned in their writings and travelers accounts. But the new rulers moved their capital to Cairo since they had no ties to the Mediterranean. When the mirror was brought down mistakenly，they did not restore it back into place. In 956，an earthquake shook Alexandria，and caused little damage to the Lighthouse. It was later in 1303 and in 1323 that two stronger earthquake left a significant impression on the structure.

The Fertile Crescent(指两河流域及约旦河流域的肥沃地带)

The Sumerians(苏美尔人)

The Sumerians made several important contributions to the civilization of Mesopotamia. One was a form of writing. The Sumerians did not have paper. They used a stylus，or pointed stick，to make impressions on soft clay bricks or tablets. The tablets were then baked to give them permanent form. The Sumerians’ type of writing is called cuneiform meaning “wedge-shaped”. Each combination of marks stood for a syllable. Sumerian cuneiform writing was later used by other peoples of the Fertile Crescent.

The Plain of Shinar(示拿，圣经中提到示拿平原在新月地带的东南部) lacked stones for building，but clay was everywhere. The Summerians used it to build their houses and temples. Their invention of the arch continues to be important to architecture，because an arch can support very heavy structures even over the opening of doorways and windows. Also，the Sumerians probably were the first to make wheeled vehicles(although the wheel was invented earlier)，and they taught the Egyptians to do the same.

Hammurabi’s Code(《汉穆拉比法典》)

About 1760B.C.，Hammurabi，who came from what is now Syria，brought all of lower Mesopotamia under one rule. His capital was the city of Babylon，and all of lower Mesopotamia became known as Babylonia.

Hammurabi’s most important gift to civilization was his written code of laws. It was discovered in 1901 by a team of French archaeologists digging in Iran. They found three pieces of black stone with a long series of writings on them. Put together，the stones made one block nearly 8 feet high. The discovery of this block of stone excited archaeologists and historians because the writing gave the earliest record of laws set down by a government. The Code had nearly 300 sections and covered in detail the everyday relations of the people who lived in Hammurabi’s empire. The relief shows Hammurabi receiving the laws from the sun god.

Hammurabi’s Code was not the first of its kind. He used existing laws and revised another code that was already 300 years. But his Code became the basis for other legal systems long after his death. Since law is one of the main ways that people establish and keep social order，the Code represents a great advance in civilization.

The Hebrew

The Hebrew，made important contributions to later western civilizations. In Palestine was the country of the Hebrews，or Jews. Much of the history of this people is told in the Old Testament of the Bible. It tells how the Hebrew，under their leader Abraham，came from the eastern part of the Plain of Shinar. They searched for a “Promised Land”in which to settle and after years of wandering came to Canaan，or Palestine. The Book of Exodus in the Bible tells how some of the Hebrews were enslaved by the Egyptians. After a long captivity，a Hebrew leader named Moses led his people back to Palestine. Jewish scriptures relate how Moses gave the Jews the Ten Commandments that God had revealed to him on Mount Sinai.

According to the Old Testament，the Hebrews had to fight the Canaanites and later the Philistines for possession of Palestine. Around 1025B.C.，Saul became the first king of the Hebrews. He was followed on the throne by David who，scriptures say，had killed the Philistine giant，Goliath，with a stone hurled from a slingshot. After defeating the Philistines，David established a kingdom with Jerusalem as its capital.

The Hebrew kingdom reached its height under David’s son，Solomon，who reigned from about 977 to 937B.C. He built a temple to God in Jerusalem and sent his ships to trade in distant countries. His expenses caused such high taxes that the Hebrew tribes in the north grew unhappy with Solomon’s reign. After his death，they set up an independent kingdom. The land of the Hebrews divided into two parts：the Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south. Thus weakened，the Hebrews were open to invaders. Between 722B.C. and A.D.，the Jews were conquered by several different people.

In 66A.D.，the Jews staged a revolt against their Roman rulers. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem in 70 A.D. and drove many of the Jews from Palestine，and they scattered to many different parts of the world. In spite of this Diaspora，or “scattering”，the Jews clung to their religion and customs and dreamed of someday returning to the Promised Land.

Compared with the Egyptian，Babylonian，the Hebrew kingdom was an unimportant state. It is in the areas of religion，literature，and justice that they made lasting contributions to civilization. The religion that the Hebrews developed is called Judaism. With its monotheism，or belief in one god，and teachings of the Old Testament，Judaism formed the base of two other great religions of the world—Christianity and Islam. From an early worship of mangy gods，the Hebrews developed the idea of one god for their own tribe. This idea，over a long period of time，developed into the idea of one loving Father who ruled over the whole universe. Building upon the Ten Commandments，prophets developed some of the noblest rules of human behavior，as known in the following short passage from the Holy Scripture：

It has been told thee，O man，what is good. And what the Lord doth require of thee：Only to do justly，and to love mercy，and to talk humbly with thy God.

Babylon

For nearly 2000 years，Babylon was one of the ancient world’s most important cities. Under Nebuchadnezzar，in the 500’s B.C.，Babylon became a wealthy city of 500000 persons. It was the capital of the Chaldean Empire(迦勒底王国) and an important commercial hub in the Middle East.

Babylon was located on the plain of southern Mesopotamia. The Euphrates River flowed through the city，dividing it into two sections. Originally in the form of a square，Babylon was enclosed by two huge brick walls. The outer wall， 13 miles(21 kilometers)long，was so thick that a four-horse chariot could drive on top of it. People entered or left the city through several gates. The most famous of these gates was dedicated to the goddess，Ishtar. Its front was made of glazed baked brick with colorful wall tiles.

In the center of the city stood magnificent palaces and temples linked by wide avenues. The most prominent building was a large ziggurat that reached more than 300 feet，the height of a modern 35-story skyscraper. It gleamed with a gold roof and brightly colored enameled walls. Some scholars today believe that the ziggurat was the Tower of Babel mentioned in the Bible.

South of the ziggurat was the temple of the god Marduk. Every spring，thousands of pilgrims gathered near the temple to watch a gold statue of Marduk being wheeled along the Processional Way，a special street paved with limestone and marble.

Also in the center of Babylon was the palace of Nebuchadnezzar. The palace walls were adorned with glazed tiles and relieves，or raised sculptures，of wild animals. A short distance from the palace were the famous “Hanging Gardens”，later described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The “Hanging Gardens”were actually a series of terraces planted with trees，flowers，and shrubs that seemed to hang in midair. Slaves were employed to care for the gardens. They helped pump water to the terraces from the Euphrates River. Nebuchadnezzar is said to have built the “Hanging Gardens”for his Median(米提亚人) wife，who missed the lush greenery of her native land.

Outside the center of the city were the residential areas. There，streets were narrow and the houses were crowed together. At nearby shops，craftspeople made pottery，cloth，and baskets. These items were taken to city markets. They were put on sale for local customers and for traveling merchants from as far way as India and Egypt. At the markets，coins were not used as medium of exchange. Instead，trading was carried on through barter.，or the exchange of one commodity for another. Pieces of silver or gold were also used for trade.

Early Civilization in India

More than 4000 years ago，people living in the Indus River Valley in what is now Pakistan and India had a highly organized way of life.

In the 1920s，Archaeologists discovered enough remains to learn that there，where had once been the city of Harappa(哈拉巴，印度河中游地区的最大两座古文明城镇之一). They found red limestone sculpture and delicate jewelry，graveyards，pottery，and tools. The people of this city had developed an advanced civilization at about the same time as the Egyptians and Sumerians. This civilization covered a huge area from the Arabian Sea to what is now the city of Delhi. The best source of information is Mohenjo-Daro(摩亨佐•达罗，印度河中游地区两座古文明城镇之一)，a city 400 miles southwest of Harappa.

The city of Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in blocks. The streets were paved with bricks and lined with shops. The windows of houses faced interior courtyards，not the street. Light and fresh air came through window grills made of red clay or alabaster，a white marble-like stone. Staircases led to the roof tops where the families enjoyed the cool night air. Most houses had indoor toilets，and some of the larger houses had baths. Neat brick-lined sewers along the streets carried off bath and rain water.

Life for members of the upper-class was luxurious. Their two-story houses had rooms for servants and guests. Waterproof tiles lined their bathtubs. Their wooden furniture was decorated with bone，shell，and ivory inlays. They also had ornate pottery，bronze tools，silver pitchers，and gold jewelry. Numerous toys and stamp seals have been found. Toy birds，bulls tethered to small carts，marbles，balls，and rattles amused the children of Mohenjo-Daro. The stamp seals were small pieces of stone with carefully detailed carvings. It is thought they were pressed into soft material—wax or clay—to show ownership. Most had small rings on the back and could be worn on thongs as ornaments.

The people of Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate religion. Many female statues have been found，showing that the people worshiped a goddess. She is shown adorned with necklaces，bracelets，and a girdle，or belt，around her exaggerated hips. Sculpture and carvings on the seals also show that the people burned incense or candles to their goddess and that animals were included in their religion. The great bath house，with its huge public bathing area surrounded by smaller private baths，also had living quarters. These private baths and living quarters suggest that a priest class lived in luxury and celebrated ritual bathings.

Indian Civilizations

The most advanced American Indian civilizations developed in Mexico，and South American. People built large cities and devoted time to government，religion，and the arts. They also raised armies and established empires. The achievements of the American Indian empires rivaled those of early Asia，Africa，and Europe. They contributed to the growth of later civilizations.

Olmecs（奥尔梅克人）

From 1200 B.C. to 1500 A.D.，a series of Indian civilizations flourished in Mexico. The earliest of these civilizations was the Olemec. It reached its height during the 800’sB.C.. The Olmecs were probably ruled by priests. They worshiped a chief god in the form of a jaguar，an animal related to the leopard. Olmec achievements included a counting system and a calendar，both of which were passed on to later Indian civilizations in Mexico.

Most of what is known about the Olmecs comes from an important archeological discovery. In the 1930’s archeologists uncovered the ruins of an Olmec ceremonial center at La Venta near the Gulf of Mexico. The site contained a large stone pyramid and several earthen burial mounds. Four huge heads carved from stone——the largest about 8 feet tall——have been found at La Venta. At the site，archeologists have also found pieces of pottery and jade carvings.

Maya

Between 300 and 900 A.D.，a civilization known as the Maya flourished in southern Mexico and northern Central America. Influenced by the Olmecs，the Maya built cities consisting of temple-pyramids，houses，terraces，and courts. The largest city was Tikal（危地马拉的古城蒂卡尔）. It had six temple-pyramids，one of which was 229 feet high. The Tikal population has been estimated between 50000 and 100000 persons. Each Mayan city and its surrounding area formed an independent city-state. Groups of priests and nobles ruled the Mayan city-states. Under these rulers were farmers，merchants，and artisans. Laborers and slaves made up the lowest social group.

Religion was at the center of Mayan life. Festivals were held in honor of particular gods and goddesses. The Maya prayed for plentiful harvests and offered animal sacrifice. Sometimes，in periods of crisis they would sacrifice humans，usually prisoners of war，to their deities. Following prayers and sacrifices，there would be dancing，feasts，and games. One popular activity was a sacred game that resembled basketball. In this game，players tried to hit a rubber ball through a stone ring with their elbows or hips.

The Maya excelled in arts and crafts. Artists decorated the walls of buildings with brightly colored murals of daily life. Sculptors made figurines of humans from stone and clay. The Mayan people also produced elaborately designed pottery.

Toltecs

During the period of the Maya，advanced civilizations also developed in central Mexico. The earliest of these was centered in the city of Teotihuacan（特奥蒂瓦坎）. In its center were two large pyramids——the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. These large structures were ceremonial centers，where priests performed animal and human sacrifices to the gods. Made of adobe and stone，the pyramids outlasted the civilizations of their builders and still stand today.

About 800 A.D. people called Toltecs gained control of central Mexico. The Toltecs were skilled warriors. Their powerful army conquered territory as far south as the Yucatan Peninsula，where some of the Maya lived.

There were other civilizations in Meso-America（中美洲），notably that of the Mixtect（米克斯特克家族）who became the dominant power in the mountainous country of the south in the second millennium A.D.. The finest surviving Meso-American manuscripts，painted on sheets of parchment joined to make long strips that could be folded into booklike form—gennerally，if inaccurately，called codices. They are concerned with rituals，performed in accordance with the all-important astronomical calendar and with the history of the leading families.

Aztecs（阿兹特克）

During the final century of Toltec rule，an Indian people called the Aztecs moved from northern Mexico into central Mexico.

In 1325 A.D. the Aztecs founded a city in central Mexico called Tenochtitlan（特诺奇蒂特兰）. They later developed a legend to explain the origins of the city. According to the legend，Aztec priests told their people to settle in the area where they would find an eagle sitting on a cactus and holding a serpent in its beak. After much wandering，the Aztecs finally saw on an island in Lake Texcoco what the priests had described. There，they established Tenochtitlan.

Tenochtitlan’s island location made it a unique city. Tenochtitlan was crisscrossed by canals，and raised earthen roads linked the city to the mainland. The people of Tenochtitlan planted corn，pumpkins，beans，tomatoes，and peppers on nearby artificial islands called chinampas（墨西哥印第安人的耕作法）。

By the late fourteenth century，the Aztecs had developed a powerful army. They conquered all of central and southern Mexico. The forced the conquered people to pay tribute in the form of gold，silver，jade，and bird feathers. With this wealth，Tenochtitlan became a magnificent city with temple-pyramids，palaces，and market places. By 1500A.D.the city’s population is believed to have reached more than 100000.

The Aztecs borrowed ideas and practices from those they conquered. The Aztecs learned to use metal，make pottery，and weave cloth. They also adopted the Mayan calendar and number system.

The Aztecs were skilled in the arts. They used stone sculpture to decorate temples，palaces，and other public buildings. One of the best known Aztec works is the Sun Stone，a large circular calendar stone. It shows the head of the sun god surrounded by symbols that represent the days of the Aztec month.

Inca

From 100 to 1500A.D.，a series of Indian civilizations arose in the valleys of South America’s Andes Mountains. More Indians lived in the Andes than in any other region of the America. The most famous of these civilizations was the Inca，which was centered in what is now southern Peru.

The name Inca means “children of the sun”.Originally it was the title given to the Inca emperor and his family. The Inca Empire included parts of the modern nations of Colombia，Ecuador，Peru，Bolivia，Chile，and Argentina. The Inca Indians were fine artisans. Their pottery，woven cloth，and metal work were very beautiful. The Inca Indians were also good builders. Some of their buildings were as large as the Egyptian pyramids.

Early African Art

In West Africa，near Nigeria，miners have found the remains of an ancient settlement. It has been named the Nok culture（诺克文化）. This black civilizations was at its height about 1000B.C..The people were farmers who used stone tools in their work. The Nok culture had fine artists. They made beautiful clay sculptures. Samples of some of their work have been found. The same kind of sculpture has also been found farther south，along the coast of West Africa.

Much of early African art has been lost because it was crafted in wood. Wood eventually rots and is attacked by termites. Festival rituals required carved statues and sculptured animal forms. Plays and dances required masks. Ceremonial meals required special bowls with certain designs. Dances required drums，flutes，banjos，and other musical instruments. Because wet climates and insects quickly destroyed these between festivals，Africans copied them again and again over the centuries. This is how historians know what the early art forms looked like.

The best-known African art form is its sculpture. The Ife，who lived in present-day Nigeria，sculpted outstanding bronze heads with the lost-wax method. Ife artists began by delicately sculpting a wax figure. They then covered the figure with a clay that bakes very hard. When the pieces were heated，the wax melted and drained out through straws. Molten bronze was then poured to replace the wax. After cooling，the clay was cracked，and the original wax figure appeared in bronze. The Ife created their magnificent sculptures around A.D.1200.

The group of Benin from the Lake Chad region sculpted bronze heads and all plaques. They used them in religious ceremonies. The art was at its height when the Europeans arrived at their inland kingdom. Soon their bronze plaques were showing Portuguese，carrying harquebuses（火绳枪）and crossbows.

African art has had enormous impact on the arts of Europe and the America. Fabric designers，potters，music composers，dancers，and other artists are continually rediscovering Africa’s artistic heritage. Some say that modern art owes a great deal to Pable Picasso’s visit to a Paris museum collection of African carving in 1907.

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